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Hence, threats are not just threats by nature, but are constructed as threats through language. In order to convince an audience to take extraordinary measures, the securitising actor must draw attention and often exaggerate the urgency and level of the threat, communicate a point of no return, i.

An issue becomes securitised when an audience collectively agrees on the nature of the threat and supports taking extraordinary measures. This has generated criticism from some scholars, who recommend understanding securitisation as a long process of ongoing social constructions and negotiation between various audiences and speakers. Any security issue can be presented on a spectrum ranging from non-politicised the issue has not reached public debate to politicised the issue has raised public concerns and is on the agenda to securitised the issue has been framed as an existential threat.

Security measures in the War on Terror, such as the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, the use of torture, the increased surveillance of citizens, extraordinary renditions and secretive drone strikes, illustrate the logic of exceptionality.

Had the War on Terror not been framed in a context in which a suspension of normal politics was permissible and necessary, these security measures would probably not have existed — nor would they have endured to the present day. After all, audiences are not complete dupes at the mercy of the securitising actor, and by making the process more transparent, securitisation theory endows the audience with agency and responsibility.

In this context, the role of the security analyst moves from objectively analysing the threat to studying the processes by which securitising actors construct a shared understanding of what is collectively recognised as a threat. The group has been presented as a threat to the security of the state, to the security of individuals in Western Europe and more broadly as a threat to the Western way of life.

This means that the securitisation of the Islamic State group affects at least three sectors: the societal, the military and the political. Securitisation theory observes that sometimes in a democracy the government must justify the suspension of normal politics to the public.

Hence, if the Islamic State group is securitised in European states, which are regarded as democratic, we should be seeing securitising moves from government officials — a rhetorical justification of why intervention, for instance, is the only way to remove the threat of the Islamic State.

It is important to note that securitising actors are not limited to politicians. Security professionals like the police, intelligence services, customs, immigration services, border guards and the military all play an important role in defining the security landscape. Although disagreements and confrontation occur between security professionals, Bigo, Bonditti and Olsson , 75—78 argue that they are still guided by a set of common beliefs and practices.

Securitising actors take security threats objectively and seek to solve them by undertaking various missions. In addition, there are also functional actors who can influence the dynamic of the field of security but who do not have the power to move an issue above politics. Examples of functional actors can be the media, academia, non- governmental agencies and think tanks. It can also include individuals themselves, by telling and sharing stories between friends, families and colleagues.

For example, extreme claims made in tabloid newspapers across Europe create a narrative in which the Islamic State group is infiltrating society and working to bring on the demise of the democratic state. Noticeable examples of securitising moves in the United Kingdom can be found during the House of Commons debate on the motion for British military action in Syria on 2 December The grammar of the security speech act is discernible.

The speech points to the existentially threatening nature of the Islamic State group, a point of no return and a solution which breaks free of the normal democratic processes. In the months after the Paris attacks, Hollande increased French military strikes in Syria and ordered a state of emergency that gave French security forces controversial domestic powers.

Contrapositive Proof 5. Proof by Contradiction 6. Proving Non-Conditional Statements 7. Proofs Involving Sets 8. Disproof 9. Mathematical Induction Relations Functions Proofs in Calculus Cardinality of Sets Thanks to the readers who wrote to report mistakes and typos! And third, because each human being is unique, theories related to human beings should be used to understand behavior, not to predict behavior.

They just needed to be filled with raw knowledge and experience in order to function in an adult manner. Piaget rejected this, saying that our brains and mental functioning develops through a series of universal stages. We think in distinctly different ways at each stage. All children, he said, go through four stages: Sensorimotor stage birth to approximately age two. This new cognitive function is known as representational thinking.

As this ability grows, children begin to realize that if you put a doll behind your back it still exists. Piaget - 3 perspectives: front and back, above and below, near and far. This ability to move allows them to seek out hidden objects whose representations now exist in memory. A second major accomplishment at the sensorimotor stage is the ability to carry out goal- directed actions. This is the ability to contemplate and carry out more than one action in order to reach a goal.

For example, if a child cannot open a cardboard box to get to a cookie, he or she might seek some sort of tool to open the lid or tear the box. Preoperational stage approximately age two to seven. Piaget described an operation as an action carried out through logical thinking. Having acquired representational thinking see above , preoperational thinking is the stage just before children are able to use formalized logic. Here vocabularies i.

Although children are learning language and language rules, they do not yet understand logical relationships and they cannot mentally manipulate information.

This stage is marked by irreversible thinking, that is, the ability to think in one only direction they can not reverse an operation. They still see the world only in terms of themselves. A major learning task that occurs near the end of this stage is conservation. This is where children begin to understand that even though the appearance or characteristics of an object may change, the amount or volume stays the same. They realize, for example, that if you have two equal balls of cookie dough and flatten one, the two balls still contain the same amount.

Or, if you break one ball of cookie dough into four big pieces and a similar ball into 20 little pieces they still contain the same amount. Children generally achieve this realization around age 6 or 7.

Concrete operational stage approximately age seven to eleven. This stage is marked by the start of logical thinking. For example, irreversible thinking begins to give way to reversible thinking. However, all thinking must be very concrete and based in the present. When introducing numbers and the concepts of addition and subtraction, children in preschool through grade one should be given chips, buttons or other concrete counters to see and manipulate. Likewise, all science instruction should be as hands-on and active as possible learning by doing vs.

If X happens then Y will happen. For example, if I put too many block on the pile, then it will tip over. If the tinfoil boat has high sides, then it will hold more pennies. If a bug has six legs, then it is an insect.

However, when learning to think in logical sequences, the objects of thought or some physical representation of them should always be present. This is the very beginning of their system of logical thinking. A particular type of thinking that develops at this stage is classification. In the previous preoperational stage, children could group objects only according to one attribute color, size, etc at a time.

Concrete-operational children, however, are able to group things based on a number of different attributes. For example, given a description of felines, they can put tigers, panthers, and house cats in one group, and foxes, wolves, and pugs in another group. However, children at this stage are still unable to think abstractly. For example, given a list of storybook and movie characters, children at this stage would have hard time putting them in a group according to which are evil and which are good.

They would also have a hard time deciding which actions represent free speech or which rules illustrate democracy and which do not. This is because children at this stage are still highly dependent on perceptual differences in classifying objectives or experiences. Formal operational approximately age eleven on. At this stage children begin to acquire the ability to think abstractly, that is, to develop and manipulate symbols and to generalize to similar situations. Or, make analogies such as: big is to little as slow is to a wide, b turtle, or c fast.

Or even, create abstract metaphors: Math class was a big puddle of mud. And, given a set of facts, they are able to make inferences. What can does this say about Dorothy? Why do you think? What does this tell us about her? Or even, what do you think happened in Oz after Dorothy left? Children also develop the ability to use more advanced deductive thinking Sherlock Holmes thinking and inductive thinking looking at a field and inducing order on it by categorizing or creating groups , and hypothetical if-then thinking.

Learning these types of formal operational thinking can be enhanced through the use of thinking skill lessons Johnson, A thinking skill is a cognitive process broken down into steps and taught explicitly. Figure 3. Examples of thinking skills. Creating Groups: inductive analysis Impose order on a field by identifying and grouping common themes or patterns.

Thinking Frame 1. Look at the whole. Identify reoccurring items, themes, or patterns. Arrange into groups. Describe the whole in terms of groups. Look at all items. Find the similarities. Find the differences.

Conclude and describe.